George Albert Smith is widely regarded as the inventor of film editing. He developed a variety of techniques to achieve special effects, many of which are still used in modern film making. Smith pioneered processes such as superimposition, double-exposure, reversing, close-up shots and dream sequences. Films he has created such as Grandma's Reading Glass, The house that Jack built and Let me dream again include a vast variety of editing techniques, including the close-up shot, subjective and objective point of view shots and reversing footage. These techniques created a whole new sense of continuity within film making and editing and gives a lot more detail within his story lines.
Montage-
Montage is an editing technique where lots of short shots are edited to link together to create a story with time, information and a storyline. In France the word "montage" simply denotes cutting. It was originally used by Russian director/producer Sergei Eisenstein. The montage sequence is usually used to show the passage of time
Intellectual montage: This is a montage which is where they are combined to send a high intellectual message out to the audience. A good example of this is from the film Stike by Eisenstein in 1925, it is edited is an extremely powerful manor. The use of music combined with slaughter scene gives off a strong emotional reaction to the audience as it has a good pace using montage, cuting from shot to shot which get more and more graphic. The intellectual method behind this shot is when the workers are attacked and so are the cattle, its saying that the workers are being treated simular to the cattle.
Rhythmic: This method is based on the continuity of the shots used, making sure that there is constantly continuity from shot to shot. This method can be used to create a fast pace and make scenes more exciting for a viewer, it can allow a film maker to show details in part of a scene that they wouldnt normally be able to achieve without montage.
Overtonal: Overtonal is where they merge other montage techniques to create a very complex and powerful response from a viewer.
Tonal: This method of editing is a very in depth style of editing, which is used to create a strong emotional response from people watching the footage. It is a lot more complex then the metric or rhythmic style of montage editing.
180oc Degree rule-
When filming, the 180-degree rule is a guideline between any characters on screen, it means that any characters should always keep to one side of this rule so it doesn't cause confusion as if the camera went pass this point, the characters wouldn't have the same positioning as the original shot which would look weird to viewers. If the camera passes over the axis, it is called jumping the line or crossing the line.The 180-degree rule is a very important factor to most editing techniques and is a rule for all editors, since it was first introduced by D.W. Griffith, in the 1900s.
The 180 degree rule is used in this clip for the final scene of Casablanca, as you will notice the opening of the clip the woman character is always on the right hand side of the screen, this is because they have stuck to the 180 degree rule so it doesnt cause any confusion for the viewers and has more of a natural look to the editing. The 180 degree rule is still now used in most filming unless its purposely not used to confuse viewers, but otherwise its makes a film seem a lot more realistic.
This video really shows how the 180 degree rule works, its really effective and can save actors a lot of time when film as they can film the single shots by themselves. This video really helped me understand how the 180 degree rule really works. As you can see, the positioning of the characters never change sides, this is a very important rule when editing as other wise it'll look messy and confusing to a viewer.
Shot - reverse - shot-
Shot reverse shot is a filming technique where one character is shown looking at another character, and then the other character is shown looking back at the first character. Since the characters are shown facing in opposite directions, it will appeal as if they are looking at each other to the viewer. This is often used to show emotion responses between characters and during conversation between characters.
In this example from the film P.S I love you, they have used shot reverse shot twice, they used it during the argument of the two characters which really catches the anger and emotions between both characters. This is used to really get the audience involved with the characters emotions and can quite often get the audiences feeling overwhelmed with the emotions its giving off, for say its a dramatic love story like P.S I love you.
This is a clip from the early day film, Casablanca. They have used shot - reverse - shot in these scenes, again during conversation of the two characters, this really shows how in modern day editing, we still use the same techniques that we're originally used by these Hollywood Classics. During these scene, the style of shot reverse shot was used to show the seriousness of the topic and the tension between the characters, it creates tension as the viewers are constantly looking for the reactions of the characters and combined with the backing track used, this creates a very tense atmosphere.
Straight cut-
A straight cut is a technique where it starts off on one character then suddenly changes over to another character, this technique is usually used in conversation between characters, often cutting back and forth between characters. A straight cut means a change over can happen very quickly, keeping a films pace at a quicker level and moving the story line on. This can be either in the same time and place, or move the viewer abruptly to a different location or time.
One of the earliest films that use editing was the film "the great train robbery, by Edwin S Porter, in 1903. It is supposed to be one of the first moving pictures to use a type of editing on it, this happens throughout the film to show different scenes, using a 'straight cut' from one scene to the next, which is now one of the most popular cutting technique used in film making.
In this clip from The Great train robbery, you can see that at 1.03 Edwin had used his first straight cut here, which is the transition of scenes. This helps the story line progress and takes you from one set to another without going on for ages. Straight cuts save a lot of time in film making as this way you dont have to include every single detail in actions to make sence to an audiences as its still linking the characters.
During this conversation from the film Mean girls, you can see that the camera switches constantly between characters during the conversation, which is a straight cut. This shows both of the characters facial expression during the conversation which there is quite a bit of during this scene. For the scene it really shows the characters personality as she is being very forward with her opinions, which is very suited for the 'teen movie' that this is.
You can see in the clip from the film, Silence of the Lambs, that they have used straight cut during this conversation too, doing this makes you seen how uncomfortable the male character is making the female character be, whereas if the camera was only on the male, you would have no idea what her reaction would be to what he is saying.
Continuity/Invisible Editing-
Continuity Editing is a style of editing that creates a continuity of space and time out of different sections of scenes from individual shots, the shots are arranged to structure the progression of the story, so you cant notice the fact it has been edited. Continuity editing aims to create a scene where the editing of the footage is basically invisible. Continuity would always stick to the 180 degree rule when filming. Continuity editing is used basically used for TV and films but was originally first used back in the 1900's. It makes sure that no technique of editing used in this draws any attention to itself.
Continuity editing was first used in 1905 by Cecil Hepworth, it instigated during the classic Hollywood cinema narrative studio system of 1920-1960. The purpose of the was to make the story line seem as natural and real life like as possible, therefore editing would not be obvious.
For example in this clip from Cecil Hepworth's film, Rescued by Rover, it has been edited but within the scene it wouldn't be noticeable to a viewer as it goes along with the storyline that the editor would have structured for it. Hollywood's movies are normally edited so well that you barely notice the editing any but with invisible editing, this is done intentionally so it looks so well moulded in the edit, you don't notice. They have used to the 180 degree rule throughout this clip to help create this invisible editing look. Within the invisable edit, the managed to combine a total of more then 20 shots, this not only made the film longer, but demonstrated that advances in film language could be made in editing as well as shooting. Hepworth used invisable editing on these shots so it looks like one clear storyline to the viewer and doesnt look like it has been edited, i.e. its not jumpy in places and has a really natural flow to it, people back in this time wasnt used too lots of editing in a clip, so this would have helped them adjust to it.
In the film V for Vendetta they have used continuity editing in several scenes, in this clip they have used the eye line match technique, which is there they show the first character looking at something then go to another shot of what the character is looking at, this makes a smooth cut as a viewer would expect to know what the character is looking at and would be interested in finding out what it would be. This would also get the viewer intrigued into what the character is looking at, keeping the attention of the viewer. The 180 degree rule has also been used throughout this footage as the female character is always on the left hand side of the screen, even when they change scenery, this makes more sense to a viewer as it looks a lot more straight forward.
Cutting on action.
Cutting on action is a film editing technique where it cuts from one shot to another view that would match up the first shots action. The two shots could be filmed at different times and even sometimes location to other other, but cutting on action gives the impression of continuous time when being watched. By using a character starting an action, like opening a door in the shot and carrying it through to completion in the next shot, a visual bridge is built, which distracts the viewer from noticing the cut or any continuity errors in between the two shots. The entrance of the second shot must match the screen direction of the end of the first shot. Matching action is part of classical cutting - the so-called rules of editing, mostly invented by D.W. Griffith, back in the early 1900s and still used today. This means that when you are cutting between action shots, all moving things (hands, heads, etc.) need to be in the same place at the end of one cut and the beginning of the next shot.
(it wouldn't let me embed the video for this one) this is a clip from Muriel - ou le Temps d'un retour, in this clip they have used cutting on action where the female character is walking through the door, this gives the effect as if it has not been edited and was shot in one take, the rhythmic motive from the first shot into the second is perfectly the same, giving this impression of not being edited. They have also stuck to the 180 degree rule, this helps get that flow of continuity in the edit.
I watched this You Tube video all about Cutting on action, I found this very useful and it explained and demonstrated the technique very clearly so I had a good understand of how it worked. As you can see from the demonstration they give you, every action is linked into the next action completing it or showing the viewer what happens next, the human eye is drawn to movement, so editors take full advantage of this fact when editing to make them look like one single shot.
Cross cutting/Parallel editing.
Cross cutting is an editing technique which is most commonly used in films to show two actions that are happening at the same time in different locations. Cross cutting can be used to create suspense by having two major events/ points of the film occurring at one time and cutting between them, this grabs the viewers attention as they want to know whats happening in both scenes all at once, and as so much is going on they wont want to look away. This technique can also be used to create a strong emotional response from the viewer, as it can include two totally different views of a situation. Often this style of editing is used at the climax of a film to really build up the tension around it before the final finally of the good or bad triumphing. Cross-cutting was first established as a film making technique relatively early in film history.
In this sort film, Corner in Wheat by DW Griffiths Corner, the technique of Cross cutting has been used create an emotional response, this is very effective in the way that it holds your attention as it constantly switches between the two classes of people, as it shows the poorer people struggling to live whereas the wealthier people are enjoying a dinner party with plenty of food, using this technique makes you compare the two lifestyles and feel sorrow for the lower class people. Its really effective in the fact it makes you want know to what will happen to the lower class people.
This is a clip from the film Mission Impossible 2, where the technique Cross cutting has been used to create tension, as this is an action film theres so much going on at once so combined with the cross cutting, this makes it really attention holding for the viewers as they don't want to miss anything. Cross cutting has been used between the character that's attempting to steal something from the vault and the owner of the vault approaching. In this cross cutting it has also given you information before the actor knows whats going on, such as one of the robber's team mates was trying to give them a forewarning of the fact the vault owner was approaching, which adds even more tension to the scene as its gives the audience that questions of 'will he get caught or not?' which leaves the viewer on the end of their seat.
Fast Cutting.
Fast cutting is a film editing technique that uses several consecutive shots for a short time period, i.e. 4-5 seconds or less. It is sometimes used to show the viewer a lot of information very quickly. It can also be used to imply a quick burst of energy or chaos in a film. Fast cutting is often used when shooting a conversation between two or more character's, changing the angles to capture a reaction of a character from the other character is saying. It can also be used to bring the attention to the non-verbal actions that are happening from the character speaking, such as hand gestures etc.
Fast cutting technique is used in the film Psycho by Alfred Hitchcock, it is used in this scene to create drama and to shock the viewers. The footage used in the scene only lasts a few seconds before it moves onto the next shot, its used a variation of shots, such as close ups and mid shots, which again keeps the film interesting to the eye. The only time where the clips slightly slow the pace down is when you see the black figure behind the shower curtain, this creates tension and suspense as the view knows something is going to happen and there was a really quick build up to it, it again picks up the pace once the shower curtain is draw creating shock and fear for the viewer as it is all happening very fast. This is very effective as has kept it flowing at a good pace which is creating horror for the audience which was the intentions of Hitchcock.
Fast cutting has been used in this scene from the film Moulin Rouge, they have used this to create an upbeat scene, which is looks really effective with all the different colours used for costumes. I almost has a 'controlled choas' feel to it, as the clips are so short and there is so much going on in them, it really creates a strong feel of energy to the footage which is what they editors would have aimed for as its a dance that is taken place in this scene. The shortness of the clips fit in really well with the beat of the music that has been used for this dance, using rhythmic montage.
Jump-Cut
Jump-cut is a cutting technique in film editing where two sequential shots of the same or similar content are taken from camera positions that only slightly change. This can give the effect of jumping forward in time. Jump cuts are considered apart of basic continuity editing, which aims to give the appearance of continuous time and space in the story-world by making editing go unnoticed. Jump cuts can be made through the editing together of two shots filmed separately they can also be made by removing a middle section of one continuously-filmed shot.
This is a short clip called The vanishing Lady by George Melies, George is known to be the founder of Jump Clip after accidentally discovering it, he then used it to create illusions to look like magical tricks, by doing each shot separately then editing together as if it was one magic trick. He used continuity edited in this technique to make the clips of the trick appear as if it were real. In the late 1950's Jump cuts started to appear a lot more commonly in film work.
This is a clip from Breathless by Jean-Luc Godard, his approach to Jump Cut was a lot more obvious as you can tell where the clips change over as well as the scenery changing surrounding them, outside of the car. This shows you a passage of time as they're travelling the street scenery is always jumping ahead, helping to display the passage of time. Jean-Luc's short films actually helped boost the popularity of Jump Cuts, he didn't plan on using so many but in the process of editing changed his plan. The jump cuts really enhances the jumpy feel to the movie as it is all about the couple on the run, the film is classed as a thriller.
This is a snippet from the film Run Lola Run, in this film they have used Jump Cuts to show just how far Lola is running by constantly changing the scenery around her as she is running, this displays a passage of time and distances in a short space of footage time. This also really shows the speed of the main character, as it looks like she travelled quite a distance in a short time period to the viewer.
Transitions-fade, cross dissolve, wipe
A Transition is the passage between one place to another, or in this case a passage from one clip of footage to another. The most commonly used transition between clip is just to cut them straight to the next scene, however you can also get other transitions such as a fade, a dissolve or a wipe.
A fade is where the picture on the screen gradually turns into one singular colour, usually black, or when a picture gradually appears onto the screen. Fade In's tend to occur at the start of a film whereas fade outs tends to be found at the end of a film.
The creator of these transitions was George Albert Smith, he involved them in this early day films and used the to help create continuity editing. He used all three during his classic film making, these are all editing techniques that developed into classic Hollywood editing techniques and are still used in film making and editing to this day.
George used a studio shot for this scene for Cepil Hepword's View From an Engine Front - A kiss in the tunnel, during this clip he has used a transition of a fade, as the screen gradually goes to black into the click and the same out. He has done this for an easy way to transition the clips from being outside of the train and in the dark tunnel, to bring inside of the train cart, this is a very clever idea and has worked very effectively as it would naturally turn dark if you we're going through a tunnel on a train, helping keep the continuity editing up. In this clip George has also used a three shot sequence, meaning he has used only three shots in total to display the story line, within each of these shots he has used a fade.
For instants in the opening scene for Step Up 2, they have used a Fade in. This is very effective in this scene and it slowly brings the first dancer in, the films intro is quite slow and emotional. This effect only last a few seconds but creates a really nice rise to the film, stating its the beginning. You can see that as the technique has developed over the years, it has improved and developed in quality, this fade in is a lot slower the George's original fade, which is very effective as its really brings the movie in with a nice subtle tone and catches your interest.
A dissolve gradually changes the visibility of the picture on screen, the dissolve changes one shot into another shot gradually. Dissolves can be used similar to cut, to create a link between two different objects in a scene, like a man telling a story and the actual visual of the story. The length of the dissolve is dictated by the mood or pacing the director or editor wishes to create.
In the opening to Citizen Kane, the dissolve technique has been used for the opening scene, the dissolve between the shots are slow because its gives them a gloomly look. This effect on the opening scene creates a very spooky feel to it, with a sense of mystery as the combination of slow changing shots and music is creating a build up the to shot of the house, which makes the viewer curious about the house.
A wipe technique is where one shot goes into another by travelling from one side of the frame to another. It would be as if there was a line passing from one side of the frame over to the other. If there was two shots, once the second shot had completed filled the screen (which could be from any direction on the screen), this would be the transition complete. Another way of using a wipe would be to edit footage to look like to camera was travelling between walls, such as if the camera would start on the position looking at the ceiling then come up on the upstairs half, as if the camera had been transported between walls.
This is a video of all the different Wipe techniques used in Star Wars 3, Star Wars used many different styles of wipes during their 3rd film. The wipe technique really suits star wars Sci fi style as they make the footage look at a little futuristic, at 0.11 they have a wipe where a building cuts across the screen, this makes a clear line of where the transition begins and finishes. This footage of all the different wipes used in Star Wars shows just how many ways of doing a Wipe transition there is, as they have used so many different types during the film.
Slow motion
The technique of slow motion was pioneered by a man called August Mudger, August was an Austrian priest and phyicist who invented slow motion by using a mirrored drum as a synchronizing mechanism. The device he used was then parented in 1904 and was the presented in 1907 using a projection made by K Loffler, who was an owner of a cinema.
Slow motion is an effect in film-making where time appears to be slowed down. Usually this style is made when each film frame is filmed in a much faster rate then it will be played back, when replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. Footage can be edited to a slower pace to have this slow motion effect. Slow motion is used frequently in modern film milking, it is used by a wide range of directors to achieve diverse effects, such as really capturing the detail in a moment. Slow motion can be used to raise the tension in a film, a classic example of this is someone taking a bullet for another person.
For example in this footage from the film, The Matrix, they have used the technique of slow motion quite a few times. Slow motion in action movies work as it captures the tension and the drama of it all. Slow motion can also be used to enhance the visual style of a film, - basically to make it look really cool, as in this clip where trinity runs up the wall into a flip in slow motion, that wasn't really necessary but it looked really interesting so it will hold the viewers attention and add drama as she is only just dodging the bullets in this selection, which you can see as it has been slowed down. If this scene was done at normal playback speed, then it would still be dramatic, but as it’s played back at slow motion, you keep the audience at the edge of their seats longer, as they crave to know what happens next.
This is a clip from the film, Seven samurai, in this clip he uses slow motion to capture one of the deaths of the characters. This is to cause drama and tension, as at first you don't really know which one got hurt in the battle but can only see the discomfort of the lookers, then slowly one of the opponents fall. This causes drama as it draws out the moment, adding to the victory of the winning opponent.
Fast motion
Fast motion is a technique where the footage appears to be moving faster then normal speed to the human eye, such as a fast moving sun set. Within fast motion there is a technique called Time-lapse photography, time-lapse photography is where the speed of the film frames are captured in are much lower then those it will be used to view the footage with. So when the footage is played at normal speed, it appears to be moving a lot faster, so it could play something that takes up to 12 hours (such as an over night sun rise) and play it back in a matter of minutes. Fast motion can be used to fear humour, fear or drama in action.
This is a clip from the horror film, Paranormal activity 3, in this clip they have used fashion motion to speed up the action of the haunting, this makes the viewer feel fear and its enhancing the jumpy-ness of it. Using fast motion make the actions by the 'ghost' a lot more scarier as things are travelling around the room at a abnormal pace.
Charlie Chaplin is a classic example of how fast motion is used for humour purposes. In this they have sped up the clip to give it a humorous effect, with music that is commonly put alongside a comedy scene, which keeps up with the fast pace of the fast motion, tieing it all in. The way they have used fast motion in this footage makes the whole scene a lot more entertaining to the viewer and was a a lot more appealing to the human eye as it has created a whole new pace they have to keep up with. The scene would have still been funny without the fast motion but would have been at a much slower pace so the viewer would soon get bored of it.
